University of Economics in Wroclaw
Department of Management and Computer Science

Piotr A. Wozniak

Economics of learning

New aspects in designing modern computer aided self-instruction systems

Ph.D. Dissertation

Supervisor:
Prof. Witold Abramowicz

Wroclaw 1995

Contents

1. Introduction
   • 1.1.1. Education and technology
   • 1.1.2. Novel solutions in demand on social, institutional, regional and national platforms
   • 1.1.3. The thesis
   • 1.1.4. The goals in the perspective of time
   • 1.1.5. The genesis of the dissertation
   • 1.1.6. The structure of the dissertation
2. Spacing of repetitions in the practice of learning
   • 2.1. Research background
     • 2.1.1. Optimum spacing of repetitions
     • 2.1.2. Spacing effect
     • 2.1.3. Involuntary habituation
   • 2.2. Development of the algorithm for optimally spacing repetitions (see: Optimization of learning)
     • 2.2.1. First computer applications of repetition spacing algorithms
     • 2.2.2. Modifying the function of optimal intervals on the basis of the student’s characteristics
   • 2.3. New algorithmic elements (algorithm used in SuperMemo 6)
     • 2.3.1. Introducing the concept of the forgetting index
     • 2.3.2. Algorithm SM-6 (see: Algorithm SM-11)
   • 2.4. Approximation of the forgetting curve
   • 2.5. Simulation of the long-term learning process
   • 2.6. Long-term savings resulting from the application of repetition spacing
3. Exemplary implementation of algorithms for spacing repetitions in a self-instruction system (see: SuperMemo 99)
4. Analysis of data collected from a group of students using a repetition spacing algorithm
   • 4.1. Method
   • 4.2. Results
   • 4.2.1. General learning parameters
   • 4.2.2. Forgetting curves
   • 4.2.3. Matrices of retention factors
   • 4.2.4. Matrices of optimal factors
   • 4.2.5. Distribution of intervals
   • 4.2.6. Distribution of E-factors
   • 4.2.7. Results of the analysis in the light of the economics of learning
5. Molecular interpretation of mechanisms of memory underlying the optimum spacing of repetitions
   • 5.1. Interpretation of differences in item difficulty
   • 5.2. Two components of long-term memory
   • 5.3. Molecular memory
     • 5.3.1. Advances in molecular research of memory
     • 5.3.2. General observation in reference to memory and learning
     • 5.3.3. Hippocampus as the focus of research on long-term potentiation
     • 5.3.4. The role of acetylcholine in establishing memories
     • 5.3.5. Short-term potentiation
     • 5.3.6. Long-term potentiation of synaptic transmission in the hippocampus
     • 5.3.7. NMDA receptor as the central factor in establishing LTP
     • 5.3.8. Non-NMDA glutamate receptor
     • 5.3.9. Retrograde messengers in synaptic transmission
     • 5.3.10. Role of calcium
     • 5.3.11. Protein kinase C
     • 5.3.12. Other kinases involved in establishing LTP
     • 5.3.13. New evidence on the role of cAMP in memory and learning
     • 5.3.14. Calpain
     • 5.3.15. Metabotropic glutamate receptor
     • 5.3.16. Gene expression and memory
     • 5.3.17. Protein synthesis and memory
     • 5.3.18. Protein G
     • 5.3.19. Potassium channels
   • 5.4. Molecular correlates of the two components of memory
6. Knowledge structuring and representation in learning economics using self-instruction systems based on the active recall principle (for a popular scientific version of this text see: 20 rules of formulating knowledge in learning)
   • 6.1. Knowledge independent elements of the optimization of self- instruction
   • 6.2. Knowledge representation issue in learning
   • 6.3. Components of effective knowledge representation in active recall systems
   • 6.4. Sequencing items in the stepwise process of acquiring associative knowledge
   • 6.5. Techniques for minimizing the complexity of synaptic patterns as a key to keeping E-factors high
   • 6.5.1. Comprehension
   • 6.5.2. Minimum information principle
   • 6.5.3. Narrowing by example
   • 6.5.4. Metaphoric approach
   • 6.5.5. Vivid approach
   • 6.5.6. Graphic approach
   • 6.5.7. Enumeration techniques
   • 6.5.8. Deletion and graphic deletion
   • 6.5.9. Dismembering complex concepts
   • 6.5.10. Mnemonic techniques
   • 6.5.11. Item univocality and inter-item interference
   • 6.6. Planned redundancy as a way to cross-strengthening synaptic patterns
     • 6.6.1. Passive and active approach
     • 6.6.2. Support for derivation, reasoning and intelligence
     • 6.6.3. Optional reasoning clues, mnemonic clues, context and examples
   • 6.7. Complexity of wording vs. comprehension
   • 6.8. Additional functionality encapsulated in items
   • 6.9. Summary of knowledge representation issues in learning
7. Modern hypermedia systems encompassing the ability to adapt to the properties of human memory and cognition
   • 7.1. Fusion of the hypertext paradigm with techniques targeted against human forgetfulness
     • 7.1.1. Implementation shortcomings evident hypertext interfaces
     • 7.1.2. New solutions proposed for hypertext systems
     • 7.1.3. Integration of repetition spacing technology hypertext interface
   • 7.2. Hypermedia systems that account for human perception and memory
     • 7.2.1. Knowledge Machine
     • 7.2.2. Technological and economic feasibility of global hyperspace
     • 7.2.3. Infosociety or global infobabble
     • 7.2.4. Processing attributes and repetition spacing tools incorporated in the hyperspace
     • 7.2.5. Global impact of the Knowledge Machine
8. Conclusions
9. Acknowledgments
10. Glossary (see Glossary 1999)
11. References
12. Further reading
13. Index